Curriculum Development
Curriculum plays an important part in achieving educational goals and objectives. It represents our institutions' curricular and co-curricular trends, such as course of study, educational objectives, teaching approach (including teaching aids), and assessment methods. The curriculum is derived from the Latin phrase "currere", which means "to run". Which ultimately became known as the "course of study". The curriculum is the sum total of all learning material, experience, and resources that a school purposefully selects, organizes, and implements in order to fulfill its unique mission as a separate institution of human development.
Some Important Definitions of Curriculum:
The following are some of the main definitions of the curriculum:-
(1)Alberty, and Alberty (1959) define curriculum as "the sum total of student activities provided by the school in order to achieve its objectives."
(2)According to Robert, Beck, and Walter Cook, “Curriculum is this sum of the educational experiences that children have in school”.
(3) According to Blond's Encyclopedia (1969) of Education “Curriculum as all the experiences a pupil has under the guidance of the school."
(4) According to Bobbit (1918) "Curriculum is that series of things that children and youth must do and experience in order to develop the skills to do things well that make up the affairs of adult life; and to be in all respects what adults should do."
(5) Doll (1982), for example, said: "Curriculum includes all the experiences which are offered to learners under the supervision or direction of the school."
(6) It is a runway or course on which one runs to reach the goals.
(7) The concise Oxford dictionary defines curriculum as a “course of study”. Curriculum can be defined as, a course of learning activities set out for learners to perform in order to achieve certain goals.
(8) According to Tyler (1949) all the learning of students which is planned by and directed by the school to attain its educational goals is called curriculum.
(9) According to Glatthorn (1987), “plans for guiding teaching and learning”.
Therefore, Curriculum refers to the courses, subjects, and learning experiences that are offered to students at an educational institution. It involves the entire range of academic content and activities that students engage in throughout their educational journey. Curriculums are designed to provide students with the knowledge, skills, and competencies they need to succeed in their chosen fields and prepare them for higher education or work.
Differences among curriculum, syllabus, course outline, course guide, and scheme of studies:
Curriculum: The planned learning opportunities offered to the learners by educational institutions.
Syllabus: A syllabus is typically a list of content areas that are to be assessed. the syllabus is clearly intended to be a subsection of the curriculum. It includes objectives, a list of subjects, a list of content (topics, sub-topics), a list of recommended books, and a list of recommended teaching methods
Course outline: A course outline is a document that provides an overview of the content, structure, objectives, and evaluations of a specific course delivered by an educational institution.
Course Guide: A course guide is a document that covers the major components and organization of a certain course within a curriculum.
Scheme of Studies: A "scheme of studies" is often an organized plan or curriculum developed by educational institutions to specify the courses, subjects, and learning objectives for a certain program or degree.
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Characteristics of Curriculum:
(1) Totality of activities: The term Curriculum refers to all school activities intended to enhance the development of students. It refers to the entire curriculum, activities, and experiences that a student goes through in school. Pragmatists have also incorporated the complete range of learners' actions in the curriculum because they believe the kid learns by doing.
(2) A means to an end. Curriculum is well understood to be a means to an end, rather than an end in itself. As a result, it is designed to meet educational objectives. That is why many educationists have proposed various curricula to meet the goals and purposes of education. As a result, as educational goals shift, so will the curriculum.
(3) Totality of Experience: Curriculum is the sum of experiences that a student has both within and outside of school. These events helped him build his personality: Curriculum encompasses more than just the curriculum and books; it also covers all of the experiences and connections. Which are participated in by students both inside and outside of school. Thus, the syllabus established by the authorities should not be interpreted to represent the curriculum.
(4) Total school environment: The school's whole environment impacts the curriculum. It consists of everything that surrounds the learner throughout his working hours. It may be defined as "the environment in motion" . It refers to the whole educational programme of the school (school environment), comprising all experiences, activities, and learning, in which the learner is expected to advance and achieve the educational goals.
(5) Minor curricular and co-curricular trends: Curriculum is capable of reflecting the curricular and co-curricular trends in our educational institutions, including the courses of study, the goals and objectives of education, the teaching methodology (including teaching aids and evaluation techniques), and the curricular and co-curricular trends.
(6) Minor educational trends: The curriculum reflects educational developments. It provides the overall image of the current educational system. The curriculum provides a sequence of experiences that illustrate the aims of the educational system.
(7) Development of Balanced Personality of the Learners: Curriculum helps develop a balanced personality. Curriculum activities that promote physical, intellectual, emotional, social, economic, artistic, and cultural development contribute to the formation of a healthy personality.
(8) Process of Living: Curriculum is a process of life in which the person interacts with his surroundings. Curriculum is concerned with both the individual's life and the environment.
(9) Dynamic: A good curriculum is dynamic. The learners' needs and interests change with time. Different sorts of activities are necessary to meet the various demands. This often necessitates curricular revisions. The curriculum is never static. It must vary depending on the students, classes, and schools involved. It must remain dynamic in order to meet the needs, interests, talents, attitudes, and lifestyles of the students.
(10) Mirror of Philosophy of Life: Curriculum is seen as a mirror for philosophy of life. It depicts the concept of life. The curriculum reflects whether people live in a democratic or authoritarian society. Each manner of life has a distinct philosophy, and hence various purposes of education.
(11) Goal achievement: The curriculum is designed to meet certain educational goals and objectives established by society. The curriculum helps to achieve educational goals and objectives.
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The Components of Curriculum:
The main components of the curriculum are as follows:
(1) Subject and Courses: The curriculum includes a variety of subjects or disciplines such as mathematics, science, language arts, social studies, and more. Each subject has a succession of courses that build on one another, allowing students to gradually develop their comprehension and mastery of the subject matter.
(2) Learning Objectives: Each course in the curriculum includes particular learning objectives that specify what students should achieve after the course. These objectives direct the teaching and learning process and offer a framework for evaluating student progress.
(3) Assessment and Evaluation: The curriculum includes techniques for assessing the development of students. This might include examinations, quizzes, assignments, projects, and other types of evaluation. The goal of assessment is to offer feedback to students and educators, identify areas where more help is required, and ensure that students accomplish the learning objectives.
(4) Sequencing and structure: It is meant to follow a logical learning structure. Courses are usually designed in a way that builds on existing information and skills, allowing students to steadily increase their comprehension and abilities.
(5) Alignment with Standards: Many curricula are in line with educational standards established by state, or national authorities. These standards describe the expected learning results for students at different grade levels and guarantee that courses satisfy the necessary educational criteria.
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Relationship between curriculum, standards, instruction, and assessment
The curriculum gives a framework for what students will learn, educational standards establish expectations for student accomplishment, teaching delivers information and encourages learning, and assessment monitors student progress and learning outcomes. All four components are interrelated and work together to promote successful teaching and learning.
For Examples:
Curriculum: The curriculum describes the content, learning experiences, and educational activities that are intended to produce certain learning goals. It provides a road plan for what and how pupils will study. Educational standards inform the curriculum, which serves as a framework for instruction and evaluation.
Standards: Educational standards describe the knowledge, abilities, and competencies that students are expected to acquire at various grade levels or stages of education. These standards establish expectations for what students should know and be capable of doing. The curriculum is matched with these criteria, ensuring that it addresses the needed learning goals.
Instruction: The primary goal of instruction in curriculum creation is to provide effective teaching and learning opportunities. Instructional design in curriculum creation focuses on building a framework that guides educators in providing information, techniques, and assessments to meet specified learning objectives.
Assessment: Assessment is the process of acquiring information about students' learning and performance. It uses a variety of methodologies, including examinations, quizzes, projects, and observations. Assessment is used to evaluate student progress, offer feedback, and measure the amount to which students have met the learning objectives established in the curriculum and standards.
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Hidden curriculum and co-curricular Activities:
The "hidden curriculum" is stated as the understood or unwritten teaching lessons, beliefs, and behaviours that children acquire through the school's social and cultural milieu, in addition to the traditional academic curriculum. It includes the attitudes, conventions, and values that are passed down via the school's culture, interactions with instructors and classmates, and the entire school setting. Unwritten teachings can include topics including social hierarchies, gender roles, cultural standards, and attitudes towards authority. The hidden curriculum has a huge impact on students' ideas, attitudes, and behaviours, frequently impacting their social and emotional development.
Co-curricular Activities:
Co-curricular activities are activities that align with the academic curriculum but are not part of the regular academic program. Sports, clubs, student government, community service, arts programs, and other interests are examples of co-curricular activities. Co-curricular activities help learners develop abilities like leadership, teamwork, time management, and creativity. They also help students' personal and social development by fostering a sense of community, encouraging personal growth, and giving opportunities for students to pursue their interests outside of the regular classroom environment. Co-curricular activities are beneficial to kids' overall development and can improve their academic performance and well-being.
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Elements of curriculum:
The following elements of the curriculum are vital components in the design and implementation of an effective educational program:
(1) Objectives: The curriculum objectives clearly explain what students are expected to learn and achieve after finishing the educational programme. These objectives direct the selection of content, learning activities, and assessment of student achievement.
(2) Content selection: This element of content selection is selecting and organizing the educational material, topics, and skills that will be taught across the curriculum. The selection of material should be matched with educational objectives and student requirements.
(3) Learning experiences: Learning experiences relate to the methods, strategies, and activities utilized to teach curricular content. Demonstrations, projects, discussions, experiments, field excursions, and other activities are examples of such experiences.
(4) Assessment of students’ learning: Assessment of learning involves using a variety of instruments and methodologies to assess students' progress and accomplishment of curricular goals. This can include examinations, practical assignments, projects, presentations, and other types of evaluation.
These four factors combine to produce a cohesive framework that supports teaching and learning within the educational context.
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Foundations of Curriculum:
Curriculum foundations may be described as the fundamental factors that affect and form curriculum developers' thoughts, as well as the content and structure of a possible curriculum. Curriculum development's foundations can be broken down into philosophical, psychological, sociological and economic. The curriculum must take into account philosophical, psychological, sociological and economic factors; otherwise, it will remain bookish and disconnected from reality. A curriculum that ignores these foundations serves no purpose. A strong curriculum must be founded on the requirements and goals of both the learners and the society.
(1) Philosophical Foundations:
Philosophy refers to the search of wisdom and knowledge. It is the study of reality and general principles. It is concerned with the discovery of inner truths. Philosophy provides a methodical approach to understanding topics and challenges, as well as making judgements on essential aspects of curriculum creation. Philosophical study can help with curriculum building by providing insight into educational aims, their organization, and the nature of curriculum activities.
Philosophical Categories:
Three philosophical categories are particularly relevant to curriculum development.
(a) Ontology (the nature of reality)
Ontology explores “what is real”? Several questions are answered. This question may seem straightforward, but it demands further thought. The people who form diverse cultures see reality differently. Ancient cultures believed the planet was flat, but we now consider this ridiculous. One community may value chemical fertilizers, whereas another may value biological wastes more.
Thus, knowing what is real to a culture is essential while creating a curriculum. Some curriculum creators regard themselves as change agents: Thus, a new social studies curriculum could present “Kelly Gang” as a symbol of working-class resistance against authoritarian dictatorship, re-creating reality for new pupils. Thus, contemporary curricular advances like multiculturalism, gender equality, and environmental education aim to do that.
(b) Epistemology (The Nature of Knowledge)
Epistemology relates to the philosophical challenge of understanding the nature of knowledge and knowing. In the curriculum, what we promote serves as the foundation for student learning. We are truly interested in the nature of knowledge, its origins, how we know, and what we know. When studying epistemology, we question, "What is true?" How do we know the truth? Or how do we know what we know?
Thus, in curriculum development, especially in school settings, the epistemological attitude of the developers engaged is important. Will they include the acknowledged truth? What does it represent? To what extent is there agreement on that fact, or is "consensus" also an error?
(c) Axiology (the nature of value)
Axiology is the branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of value. Axiology questions are an important part of our lives since the decisions they lead to have a significant impact on our conduct. Questions like, "What is good?" and "What is attributable to humans?" are both basic to our existence and continuously present in our everyday lives. Thus, axiological concerns are vital while developing a curriculum for future generations.
(2) Psychological Foundations:
The term psychology is derived from two Greek words, "psyche" meaning soul and "logos" meaning study. Psychology is the scientific study of human behaviour.
Psychology seeks to describe, explain, and predict behaviour in humans. Psychology provides knowledge about a child's growth and learning, as well as many methods of inquiry and approaches for application in the curriculum. The psychological base makes a major and expanding contribution to the curriculum. As a relatively new subject, the opportunity for applying its concepts, principles, procedures, and values to curriculum development is constantly rising.
Curriculum makers can use psychology, specifically educational psychology, to evaluate (investigate) human behaviour in at least five domains.
(1) Educational objectives
(2) Student characteristics
(3) Learning process
(4) Teaching methods
(5) Evaluation processes
(3) Sociological Foundations:
Sociology as defined in dictionaries is “the science or study of society”
“Sociology is the systematic study of the groups and societies, human beings build and the way these alliances affect our behaviour”.
The curriculum must take into account sociological factors or it will stay academic and disconnected from reality. A curriculum that ignores the sociological foundations serves no purpose. It leads to a waste of time, energy, and resources. It will produce persons who are unable to successfully fulfil their roles as enlightened members of society. A good curriculum must be founded on the needs and ambitions of the society. An irrelevant curriculum may lead to persons who are unable to obtain jobs or participate in rewarding activities and hence stay unsatisfied, maladjusted, and disappointed.
According to sociologists, schools are social institutions established specifically for the preservation and transmission of culture within society. The curriculum is intended to fulfil this duty. As a result, the curriculum contains learning experiences based on societally valued ways of living, types of knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs. Some form of selection is required since all parts of culture cannot be incorporated in curriculum planning, therefore it serves as a means of selecting various elements.
Various sociological foundations, such as cultural, economic, and political, have a profound impact on the school curriculum, its development, content, and organization.
(4) Economic Foundations:
The economic foundation for curriculum involves the fundamental concepts and theories that influence the creation and development of educational curricula, with an emphasis on economic factors and aims. This notion emphasizes the link between education and the economy, recognizing that the information, skills, and competencies acquired during schooling have important effects on people's economic opportunities and society development.
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Curriculum aims, goals, and objectives
Aims: Aims provide a broad direction and overarching purpose of the curriculum. They are general statements that reflect the fundamental philosophy and values underlying the educational program.
Example: The aim of a high school science curriculum may be to foster scientific literacy and critical thinking skills among students.
Goals: Goals are specific, measurable outcomes that are derived from the aims. They are more focused than aims and provide a clear indication of what the curriculum intends to achieve.
Example: A goal within the science curriculum may be to ensure that students demonstrate proficiency in conducting scientific experiments and analyzing data.
Objectives: Objectives are precise, measurable targets that are derived from the goals. They are specific, time-bound, and serve as the building blocks for the curriculum's implementation and assessment.
Example: An objective within the curriculum could be for students to accurately apply the scientific method to investigate and solve real-world problems.
Relationship among Aims, Goals, and Objectives
Aims provide the overarching direction and philosophy, from which goals are derived to specify the desired outcomes. Objectives, in turn, break down these goals into specific, measurable targets that guide teaching, learning, and assessment.
Sources of Aims, Goals, and Objectives
Educational Philosophy: Aims are often influenced by the broader educational philosophy of an institution or educational system.
Stakeholder Input: Goals and objectives may be influenced by input from educators, administrators, parents, and other stakeholders.
Educational Standards: Goals and objectives are often aligned with educational standards or learning outcomes set by educational authorities.
Functions of Objectives
Guidance: Objectives guide the instructional process by providing a clear roadmap of what needs to be achieved.
Assessment: Objectives serve as the basis for assessing student progress and learning outcomes.
Accountability: Objectives help hold educators and institutions accountable for the educational outcomes they aim to achieve.
Types of Objectives
Cognitive Objectives: These relate to the intellectual skills and knowledge that students are expected to acquire.
Example: "Students will be able to analyze and evaluate historical events."
Affective Objectives: These pertain to attitudes, beliefs, and values.
Example: "Students will develop an appreciation for cultural diversity."
Psychomotor Objectives: These involve physical skills and coordination.
Example: "Students will be able to demonstrate proper playing techniques in sports."
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The process of Curriculum Development
The process of curriculum development involves several key stages, each of which contributes to the creation and refinement of educational plans and materials.
1. Need Assessment:
Identification of Needs: This stage involves gathering information about the current state of education, analyzing data on student performance, and identifying areas for improvement.
Stakeholder Input: Input is gathered from various stakeholders such as teachers, students, parents, administrators, and community members to understand their perspectives and needs.
2. Setting Objectives:
Establishing Goals: Based on the identified needs, clear and specific educational goals and objectives are set. These objectives outline what students should know and be able to do by the end of the curriculum.
Alignment with Standards: Objectives are aligned with educational standards and learning outcomes to ensure consistency and relevance.
3. Content Selection:
Curriculum Content: Content is selected based on the established objectives and goals. This may involve determining which topics, concepts, and skills are essential for students to learn.
Scope and Sequence: The content is organized into a logical sequence to facilitate student learning progression and coherence.
4. Instructional Methods and Strategies:
Selection of Teaching Strategies: Instructional methods and strategies are chosen to effectively deliver the curriculum content and engage students in meaningful learning experiences.
Differentiation: Consideration is given to the diverse needs, interests, and learning styles of students, and strategies for differentiation are incorporated to support all learners.
5. Assessment and Evaluation:
Designing Assessment Tools: Assessment methods and tools are developed to measure student learning and evaluate progress towards the established objectives.
Formative and Summative Assessment: Both formative assessment (ongoing assessment during instruction) and summative assessment (assessment at the end of instruction) are utilized to provide feedback and gauge student achievement.
6. Implementation:
Teacher Preparation: Teachers are provided with the necessary training, resources, and support to effectively implement the curriculum in the classroom.
Instructional Delivery: The curriculum is delivered through planned lessons, activities, and experiences that are aligned with the established objectives and instructional strategies.
7. Monitoring and Evaluation:
Ongoing Monitoring: The implementation of the curriculum is monitored and evaluated to assess its effectiveness in achieving the intended outcomes.
Data Collection: Data on student performance, teacher practices, and curriculum implementation are collected and analyzed to inform decision-making.
8. Revision and Continuous Improvement:
Feedback and Reflection: Feedback from stakeholders, along with evaluation data, is used to identify areas for improvement and inform revisions to the curriculum.
Continuous Review: Curriculum development is an ongoing process, and regular review and revision are necessary to ensure that the curriculum remains relevant, effective, and aligned with evolving educational needs and standards.
By following above eight stages in the curriculum development process, educational institutions can create coherent, effective, and student-centered curriculum that supports meaningful learning experiences and promotes student success.
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Taxonomies of educational objectives
Taxonomies of Educational Objectives refer to systematic classifications or frameworks used to categorize and organize educational goals and objectives based on different domains of learning. The most widely recognized taxonomies of educational objectives include the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain focuses on intellectual skills and knowledge. It encompasses the development of thinking, understanding, and problem-solving abilities. The cognitive domain is often associated with Bloom's Taxonomy, which categorizes cognitive skills into six levels, ranging from simple recall of information to the application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation of knowledge.
Example: An educational objective within the cognitive domain could be for students to analyze a historical event and evaluate its impact on society.
Affective Domain
The affective domain involves the development of attitudes, beliefs, and values. It addresses the emotional and social aspects of learning. The affective domain is often associated with Krathwohl's Taxonomy, which focuses on the internalization of values, the organization of values, and the characterization of values.
Example: An educational objective within the affective domain might be for students to demonstrate empathy and respect for diverse cultural perspectives during classroom discussions.
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain pertains to physical skills and coordination. It involves the development of manual or physical skills. The psychomotor domain is often associated with Simpson's Taxonomy, which categorizes physical skills into seven levels, ranging from involuntary responses to complex overt responses that integrate multiple skills.
Example: In the psychomotor domain, an educational objective could be for students to demonstrate proper playing techniques in a musical instrument or proficiency in a specific sports skill.
These taxonomies provide educators with a structured framework to design instructional objectives, develop appropriate assessment methods, and facilitate the holistic development of learners across different domains of learning.
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Solo taxonomy of educational objectives
The Structure of Observed Learning Outcomes (SOLO) taxonomy, developed by educational psychologists John Biggs and Kevin Collis, is a model used to understand the levels of understanding or learning outcomes exhibited by students. The SOLO taxonomy consists of five levels of understanding, ranging from simple to complex. Each level represents a progressively higher degree of cognitive complexity and understanding.
Levels of the SOLO Taxonomy Prestructural:
1)Prestructural:
At this level, the learner's understanding is minimal or non-existent. They may lack the necessary knowledge or skills to engage with the learning task.
Example: A student who is unable to recognize the basic components of a cell in biology.
2)Unistructural: The learner's understanding is limited to one relevant aspect of the task or concept. Example: A student who can identify the different parts of a cell but does not understand how they function together.
3) Multistructural:
At this level, the learner's understanding encompasses multiple relevant aspects, but they are not integrated into a coherent whole.
Example: A student who can list and describe the functions of each part of a cell but cannot explain how they interact.
4) Relational: The learner can make connections between different aspects of the task or concept, leading to a deeper and more coherent understanding.
Example: A student who can explain the interactions between different cell components and how they contribute to the overall function of the cell.
5) Extended Abstract:
At the highest level, the learner can generalize, transfer, and apply their understanding to new and complex situations.
Example: A student who can apply their understanding of cellular processes to explain the functions of different types of cells and predict how they may respond to changes in their environment.
Application of SOLO Taxonomy
Educators use the SOLO taxonomy to design learning tasks, assess student understanding, and provide targeted feedback to help students progress through the levels of understanding. By utilizing the taxonomy, educators can create learning experiences that facilitate the development of higher-order thinking skills and deeper understanding. Overall, the SOLO taxonomy provides a valuable framework for educators to assess and promote the cognitive development of students, enabling them to move from surface-level understanding to more profound and transferable knowledge and skills.
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Models of Curriculum Development:
Curriculum development involves the process of creating, implementing, and evaluating educational plans and materials.
Various models have been proposed to guide this process, each with its own approach and focus.
Here are some common models of curriculum development:
(1) Tyler’s Rational Model:
It was developed by Ralph Tyler. This model focuses on four key questions: What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained? This model emphasizes clear objectives and systematic planning.
(2) Taba’s Model:
It was developed by Hilda Taba, this model emphasizes a more cyclical and collaborative approach to curriculum development. It involves seven steps: diagnosing needs, formulating objectives, selecting content, organizing content, selecting learning experiences, organizing learning experiences, and evaluating the curriculum.
(3) Wheeler’s Model:
This model, proposed by David Wheeler, consists of five stages: exploration, specification, validation, elaboration, and implementation. It emphasizes the importance of stakeholder involvement and feedback throughout the curriculum development process.
(4) Tanner’s Model:
It was developed by Daniel Tanner, this model focuses on four components: objectives, content, learning experiences, and evaluation. It emphasizes the alignment of these components and advocates for a learner-centered approach.
(5) Oliva’s Model:
It was developed by Peter Oliva, this model involves four stages: planning, implementation, evaluation, and reflection. It emphasizes the iterative nature of curriculum development and the need for continuous improvement.
(6) Stufflebeam’s CIPP Model:
It was developed by Daniel Stufflebeam, the CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product) model involves four interrelated components: context evaluation, input evaluation, process evaluation, and product evaluation. It emphasizes a comprehensive approach to curriculum evaluation and improvement.
(7) Saylor’s Model:
It was proposed by Michael Saylor, this model involves four phases: exploring, planning, implementing, and evaluating. It emphasizes the importance of considering contextual factors and involving stakeholders in decision-making.
Each offers a framework for curriculum developers to follow, but it's important to adapt and customize these models to suit the specific needs and context of the educational institution or program.
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Curriculum Design:
Curriculum design refers to the process of planning and creating educational experiences for learners. It involves making decisions about what content to teach, how to teach it, and how to assess student learning.
Curriculum design can take various forms, including subject-based and activity-based approaches.
(1) Subject-Based Curriculum Design:
In subject-based curriculum design, the curriculum is organized around specific subject areas or disciplines, such as mathematics, science, language arts, or social studies. This approach typically involves a structured sequence of topics or units within each subject area.
Role of Teachers and Students:
Teachers play a central role in subject-based curriculum design by delivering instruction, facilitating discussions, and assessing student progress. Students are typically seen as recipients of knowledge and are expected to actively engage with the content through listening, reading, and completing assignments.
Classroom Environment:
The classroom environment in subject-based curriculum design often reflects the traditional teacher-centered model, where the teacher is at the front of the room and students are arranged in rows of desks. Resources such as textbooks, workbooks, and supplementary materials are commonly used to support instruction.
Assessment:
Assessment in subject-based curriculum design often includes traditional methods such as quizzes, tests, and exams that measure students' knowledge and understanding of the subject matter. Grades are commonly used to evaluate student performance and determine their level of achievement.
(2) Activity-Based Curriculum Design:
Activity-based curriculum design focuses on providing hands-on, experiential learning opportunities for students. This approach emphasizes active engagement, collaboration, and problem-solving.
Role of Teachers and Students:
In activity-based curriculum design, teachers serve as facilitators or guides rather than the primary source of knowledge. They create learning experiences, design activities, and provide support and guidance to students. Students take on a more active role in their learning process. They participate in activities, work collaboratively with peers, and explore concepts through experimentation and discovery.
Classroom Environment:
The classroom environment in activity-based curriculum design is often more flexible and dynamic, with spaces for group work, hands-on activities, and exploration. Resources such as manipulatives, technology tools, and materials for experiments or projects are commonly used to support active learning.
Assessment:
Assessment in activity-based curriculum design focuses on measuring students' skills, understanding, and ability to apply knowledge in real-world contexts. Assessment methods may include project-based assessments, portfolios, presentations, and performance tasks that allow students to demonstrate their learning in authentic ways.
Both subject-based and activity-based curriculum designs have their own strengths and weaknesses, and the choice between them often depends on factors such as educational goals, student needs, and the preferences of teachers and educators.
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Curriculum Development in Pakistan:
In Pakistan, the process of curriculum development spans from early childhood education to higher secondary school certificate (HSSC) and beyond into higher education.
Here is an overview of the curriculum development process in both sectors:
Curriculum Development for Early Childhood Education to Higher Secondary School Certificate (HSSC):
Curriculum Wing:
The Curriculum Wing operates under the Ministry of Federal Education and Professional Training. It is responsible for developing and revising national curriculum frameworks and guidelines for various educational levels, including primary, secondary, and higher secondary.
Directorate of Curriculum and Teacher Education (DTCE) and Provincial Bureau of Curriculum:
The DTCE, along with the Provincial Bureaus of Curriculum, oversees curriculum development and implementation at the provincial level.
These bodies collaborate with educational experts, teachers, and stakeholders to develop and revise curriculum documents, syllabi, and textbooks according to national and provincial educational policies and guidelines.
Textbook Boards:
Each province in Pakistan has its own textbook board responsible for developing and publishing textbooks based on the approved curriculum. These textbook boards work closely with curriculum developers to ensure alignment between curriculum standards and instructional materials.
Curriculum Development for Higher Education:
Higher Education Commission (HEC): The Higher Education Commission (HEC) is the central regulatory body for higher education in Pakistan. HEC oversees the development and review of curricula for undergraduate and graduate programs across universities and colleges in Pakistan. It sets standards and guidelines for curriculum development, quality assurance, and accreditation.
National Curriculum Review Committee (NCRC):
The National Curriculum Review Committee (NCRC) is responsible for reviewing and updating curricula for higher education programs. The committee comprises subject matter experts, academics, and representatives from relevant industries. NCRC ensures that curricula are relevant, up-to-date, and aligned with national and international educational standards and industry requirements.
In both sectors, the curriculum development process involves several stages, including needs assessment, curriculum design, stakeholder consultation, pilot testing, implementation, and evaluation. The aim is to develop curricula that are relevant, inclusive, and conducive to students' holistic development and future success in their academic and professional pursuits.
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Curriculum development
Curriculum development is the process of creating, revising, and implementing educational plans and materials to guide teaching and learning in educational settings. It involves a systematic approach to designing instructional experiences that align with educational goals, standards, and the needs of learners.
Role of Teachers in Curriculum Development:
Expertise and Input: Teachers play a crucial role in curriculum development as they possess firsthand knowledge of students' needs, abilities, and interests. They provide valuable input regarding instructional strategies, learning outcomes, and assessment methods.
Curriculum Implementation:
Teachers are responsible for implementing the curriculum in the classroom. They adapt instructional materials, differentiate instruction, and provide support to meet the diverse needs of students.
Feedback and Evaluation:
Teachers provide feedback on the effectiveness of the curriculum through ongoing assessment and evaluation of student learning outcomes. They identify areas for improvement and suggest revisions based on their observations and experiences.
Process of Curriculum Change:
Identification of Need: Curriculum change may be prompted by factors such as changes in educational standards, emerging research findings, shifts in societal needs, or feedback from stakeholders.
Review and Analysis: The existing curriculum is reviewed and analyzed to identify strengths, weaknesses, and areas for improvement. This may involve gathering data through surveys, assessments, and consultations with stakeholders.
Development of New Curriculum: Based on the findings of the analysis, curriculum developers create or revise curriculum documents, including goals, objectives, content, instructional strategies, and assessment methods.
Pilot Testing: The new curriculum may undergo pilot testing in a small-scale setting to assess its effectiveness and gather feedback from teachers, students, and other stakeholders. Implementation: Once approved, the new curriculum is implemented in educational institutions. Teachers receive training and support to effectively implement the changes in their instructional practices.
Evaluation and Monitoring: The implementation of the new curriculum is continuously monitored and evaluated to determine its impact on student learning outcomes and identify areas for further refinement.
Presenting Reports on Analysis of Curriculum Units: Presenting reports on the analysis of curriculum units involves synthesizing findings from curriculum reviews, assessments, and evaluations into comprehensive reports. These reports typically include an overview of the curriculum, an analysis of its components, strengths, weaknesses, and recommendations for improvement. Visual aids such as charts, graphs, and tables may be used to present data and findings effectively.
Various Issues in Curriculum Change:
Resistance to Change: Teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders may resist curriculum changes due to concerns about increased workload, unfamiliarity with new instructional approaches, or fear of the unknown.
Resource Constraints: Limited funding, time, and resources can pose challenges to implementing curriculum changes effectively. Schools may lack the necessary materials, technology, or professional development opportunities to support the new curriculum. Alignment with Standards: Ensuring alignment between the curriculum and educational standards, assessments, and accountability measures is essential but can be complex and time-consuming.
Socio-political Factors: Sociopolitical factors such as government policies, cultural values, and community expectations can influence curriculum decisions and may create tensions or conflicts during the change process.
Equity and Diversity: Addressing the diverse needs, backgrounds, and learning styles of students requires careful consideration in curriculum development to promote equity and inclusivity.
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End of Course
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